A Framework for Deception Draft Report

Chester Karrass

First Karrass [33] then Cialdini [34] have provided excellent summaries of negotiation strategies and the use of influence to gain advantage. Both also explain how to defend against influence tactics.

Karrass [33] explains that change comes from learning and acceptance. Learning comes from hearing and understanding, while acceptance comes from comfort with the message, relevence, and good feelings toward the underlying idea. These are both affected by audience motives and values, the information and language used for presentation, audience attitudes and emotions, and the audience's perception and role in the negotiation. By controlling these factors, advantages can be gained in negotiations. Additional factors include:

(1) Credibility of the presenter helps gain advantage and it attained by suitable introduction and historical behavior;
(2) Message content and appeal are gained by (a) presenting both sides with the favored viewpoint at the start ane end, (b) repetition of the points to be made, (c) stating conclusions, (d) arousing a need and then fulfilling it, (e) avoiding threats, which tend to be rejected (f) asking for more, which tends to get you more, (g) stressing similarities, (h) tying hard issues to easier ones, (i) not creating defensive situations, (j) not belittling other views, (k) being friendly and sympathetic, (l) asking for advice, and (m) appealing to self worth, fairness, and excellence;
(3) Situation setting and rewards also play important factors and can be enhanced by (a) making the audience feel worthwhile, (b) reinforcing pre-existing opinions, (c) presenting a balance of ideas, (d) avoiding or offering to remove ambiguity, (e) using social pressures to your advantage, (f) accounting for audience facts, methods, goals, and values, and (g) understanding and dealing with issues of power and influence.
(4) Media choice for messages can also be important. (a) Letters are good when establishing justification, for getting letters back, for establishing justification, and when interruption is dangerous, (b) face to face is better when personal presence brings regard or respect, when visual indicators will help, or when more or less information may be desirable. (Karrass was writing before FAXes and Email were widely available).

Karrass [33] provides a three dimensional depiction of goals, needs, and perceptions and asserts that people are predictable. The three dimensions he identified are:

Goals: (1) Money, (2) power and competence, (3) Knowledge, (4) achievement, (5) excitement and curiosity, (6) social, (7) recognition and status, (8) security and risk avoidance, and (9) congruence.
Needs: Maslow's Needs Hierarchy includes (1) basic survival, (2) safety, (3) love, (4) self worth, and (5) self-actualization.
Perception: Perception of goals include: (1) How do you want opponents to see you, (2) how do opponents see their goals, (3) how do you see opponent goals, (4) how do you want opponents to see your goals, (5) how do you think opponents see your goals, and (6) how do you see your goals.

The object of a successful negotiation is to optimize how everyone sees their goals.

Karrass [33] also lists a series of specific negotiation techniques and countermeasures, and his work has been widely hailed as seminal in the field. Millions of people have now been exposed to his work. Some of the specific tactics he describes include:

Type Tactic Description Effect Countermeasure
Timing Patience Willing to bear with the situation for as long as it takes. Lowers expectations of rapid progress, may cause a desire to yield more rapidly to make progress. More patience, loss of value with time, increased social pressures.
Timing Deadline Time limits on completion of the negotiation may drive to concessions. Many times the one with more time goes by the other parties' deadline, thus making it harder to 'win'. Whoever has longest can take advantage. Don't reveal deadlines, or set other parameters to limit negotiation points.
Timing Speed Quick agreements can be made on small points, one after another, until there are no points left to be agreed upon. Causes a pattern of saying yes which carries through to future issues that may not have yielded a yes and creates an expectation of rate of progress. Quick counteroffers, refusal to make partial agreements, or a slowing of the process.
Timing Fait accompli Actions that alter the balance of bargaining power by virtue of already being in place, thus making them far harder to undo. Reduces expectations, increases work to change things. Tit-for-tat reprisals, demonstration of willingness to undo what seems nearly impossible to undo.
Timing Surprise New conditions or requireements are added after part of the negotiation is completed. Lowers expectations and changes the value of previous sub-agreements. Changes require restart of the whole negotiation process, make similar changes to previous positions, make unrelated changes that gain back whatever is lost.
Timing Status quo Go with the same agreement we had before unless and until the new agreement is completed. Lower expectations for new agreement, bypass deadlines. Go on strike, indicate that the deadline ends the old agreement, go with the old agreement with an 'adjustment' for changes in condition (cost of living increase is an example).
Timing Stretchout Deliberate extension of negotiation over a long time. Force the opponent to expend resources, create internal friction, increase pressure for agreement. Walk away, start taking desirable issues off the bargaining table, start increasing the price, other time dependent reduction in opponent expectations.
Inspection Open inspection Unlimited inspection is permitted. Openness, honesty, nothing to hide. Do inspections and verify it.
Inspection Limited inspection Access for inspection is limited at the control of the party being inspected. We are open, but we won't let you look around forver before making progress. If limited inspetions are inadequate, so indicate.
Inspection Confession Full disclosure of all known items of interest are made. Openness and honesty is laudible. None needed except verification.
Inspection Qualified confession Questions are answered but faults are not offered. Appearance of openness but information is only selectively revealed as needed. Ask a lot of quesitons, including general ones like 'Are there any other things that might be relevant..."
Inspection Third party Access by agreed upon neutral third parties. We are open and honest, but we have legitimate reasons for limiting your access. Question sincerity, find a good inspector.
Inspection No admitance No inspection os permitted. Reduction of expectations / can be used to cause mystique. Go elsewhere, require alternatives to inspections.
Authority Limited authority The person at the table is not authorized to make the final deal. It allows negotiation toward the best we can get from you, followed by having to get more from you. If authority is know ahead of time, provide a non-authoritative negotiator on your side. If this is revealed after negotiations are underway, treat as a possible deception.
Authority Approval The person at the table can negotiate, but the deal requires approval. Lowers expectations of finality, creates potential for refusal to approve, allows negotiator to 'blame' on someone else, allows negotiator to act like they are on your side. Seek approval at every step, negotiate in good faith to a final agreement and refuse to take less, indicate that you too need approval and get their approval first.
Authority Escalation approval Deliberate creation of additional approvals. Lowers expectations, an escalation of the items in "Approval". As in "Approval".
Authority Missing man Deliberate absence of person with final authority. As in "Approval" As in "Approval" or indicate that you will be willing to reschedule for when the final authority is available.
Authority Arbitration Third party decision - neutral or biased. Create at least the illusion of impartiality and fairness, lays blame on others. Refuse to permit it, accept a well known mechanism, accept only really trusted third parties, back out.
Association Alliances Strong partners Strengthen bargaining power, strong desire for mutual benevolence. Foster this.
Association Associates Friends Slight strengthening of bargaining power. desire for mutual benevolence. Foster and improve this, ask for references.
Association Disassociates Mutual non-friends The enemy of my enemy is my friend. Use caution - it is not always true.
Association United Nations Broad-based alliance of industry members. Strength in numbers. Try to use it to improve ties, gain reference information.
Association Bribery Payoff and collusion Someone pays someone for an advantage. Report to law enforcement, report to management, refuse to deal with them, take their money (legally only - give them a receipt and fair market value) and don't weaken your position.
Amount Fair and reasonable Everyone wants to believe they are fair and reasonable. Appeal to morality and sense of fairness. Get select examples of competitors and raise price to meet theirs, provide explanations for why yours is fair and reasonable at a higher price.
Amount Bulwarism Take it or leave it. Expectations are forced toward win or lose - no shades of gray. Leave it.
Amount Nibbling Take small concessions one after another - after other issues are settled. Many seemingly small items come out to a large difference. Nibble back. For every nibble, extract a price.
Amount Budget bogey My budget is only so much. Puts artificial limits on price. Offer lower-quality alternatives that meet the budget, help them increase the budget, spread over multiple budget items or cycles.
Amount Blackmail Since you have no choice, they can ask whatever they want - up to a limit. Investment in this line leaves you with little choice. Change directions, nibble for other concessions, change other terms, walk away.
Amount Escalation After agreement, take your part and raise demands. Lowers expectations and feelings of self-worth Return fire - don't let them get away with it - Offer accepted is a legal contract - etc.
Amount Intersection Tie together otherwise seperate negotiations. Creates complexity and opportunity for tying easy things to hard ones. Refuse to tie, tie still other items, deal with the increased complexity, etc.
Amount Non-negotiable Select items can not be altered. Lowers expectations with respect to those items and creates automatic wins for one side. Don't buy into it, create your own non-negotiables, negotiate harder for other items, walk away.
Amount Chinese auction Multiple opponents are played off against each other. Creates competition between competitors. Ignore the others and negotiate for yourself, walk away, explain that after they have their best offer elsewhere, if they want to deal with you, you will be available to discuss it, trade price for other terms.
Brotherhood Equal brothers Based on equal status. Expectation of tit for tat. Fulfill expectation with appropriate caution.
Brotherhood Big Brother Benevolence based on higher status. Since I am so much bigger I will help you. Thanks, I could use the help.
Brotherhood Little brother Charity desired based on lower status. I am small and you are big, please be nice. Recognize that they are potentially exploiting your desire to be good.
Brotherhood Long-lost brothers Search for relationship and status. Trying to find common ground. Provide it.
Brotherhood Brinkmanship Intersecting destiny based on high joint risk. Threat-based and potentially very dangerous. Decide oif it is worth it and if so expect serious consequences and prepare for them.
Detour Decoy Attract or snare Seemingly excellent offer is used to get you to invest time and effort which you are then motivated to get value for. Recognize and walk away, negotiate harder to get back full value, set parameters and expectations appropriately so that you are not snared.
Detour Denial Negation or retraction of statement. Create false impressions, generate concessions to indicate real parameters, lower expectations, increase anger and frustration, create delays. On the first time, indicate displeasure, and take back all of the previous discussions, create pressure on their side to stop it.
Detour Withdrawl Walk away from negotiations. Lowers expectations, may generate wild concessions just to get you back to the table. Don't give in, create social pressures to bring them back, seek out alternative deals.
Detour Good and bad guys Good cop bad cop. You confide in the friendly one, who looks good in comparrison to the unfriendly one. Recognize the tactic and don't be offended or fooled by it.
Detour False statistics an errors Creating deceptive statistics The statistics have the appearance of authority. Question, understand, and verify this sort of information.
Detour Scambled eggs Creating dilliberate confusion on issues or figures Confusion is used to cause the negotiator to make mistakes and get in over their head. Know when you don't know enough and ask for help, bring in experts, explain that it is getting too complex and that if it isn't simplified, you will have to seek alternatives.
Detour Low balling Initial low price with high add-ons (close to bait and switch) Create expectation of low price and momentum to buy, followed by seemingly small adjustments that add up. Try to get the add-ons for free, nibble at the add-ons, get the 'whole' price and then compare it to alternatives.
Detour Scoundrel Larceny by never-ending negotiations Wastes time and effort while consuming your resources. Detect and walk away.

Type	Tactic	Description	Effect	Countermeasure
Timing	Patience	Willing to bear with the situation for as long as it takes.	Lowers expectations of rapid progress, may cause a desire to yield more rapidly to make progress.	More patience, loss of value with time, increased social pressures.
Timing	Deadline	Time limits on completion of the negotiation may drive to concessions. Many times the one with more time goes by the other parties' deadline, thus making it harder to 'win'.	Whoever has longest can take advantage.	Don't reveal deadlines, or set other parameters to limit negotiation points.
Timing	Speed	Quick agreements can be made on small points, one after another, until there are no points left to be agreed upon.	Causes a pattern of saying yes which carries through to future issues that may not have yielded a yes and creates an expectation of rate of progress.	Quick counteroffers, refusal to make partial agreements, or a slowing of the process.
Timing	Fait accompli	Actions that alter the balance of bargaining power by virtue of already being in place, thus making them far harder to undo.	Reduces expectations, increases work to change things.	Tit-for-tat reprisals, demonstration of willingness to undo what seems nearly impossible to undo.
Timing	Surprise	New conditions or requireements are added after part of the negotiation is completed.	Lowers expectations and changes the value of previous sub-agreements.	Changes require restart of the whole negotiation process, make similar changes to previous positions, make unrelated changes that gain back whatever is lost.
Timing	Status quo	Go with the same agreement we had before unless and until the new agreement is completed.	Lower expectations for new agreement, bypass deadlines.	Go on strike, indicate that the deadline ends the old agreement, go with the old agreement with an 'adjustment' for changes in condition (cost of living increase is an example).
Timing	Stretchout	Deliberate extension of negotiation over a long time.	Force the opponent to expend resources, create internal friction, increase pressure for agreement.	Walk away, start taking desirable issues off the bargaining table, start increasing the price, other time dependent reduction in opponent expectations.
Inspection	Open inspection	Unlimited inspection is permitted.	Openness, honesty, nothing to hide.	Do inspections and verify it.
Inspection	Limited inspection	Access for inspection is limited at the control of the party being inspected.	We are open, but we won't let you look around forver before making progress.	If limited inspetions are inadequate, so indicate.
Inspection	Confession	Full disclosure of all known items of interest are made.	Openness and honesty is laudible.	None needed except verification.
Inspection	Qualified confession	Questions are answered but faults are not offered.	Appearance of openness but information is only selectively revealed as needed.	Ask a lot of quesitons, including general ones like 'Are there any other things that might be relevant..."
Inspection	Third party	Access by agreed upon neutral third parties.	We are open and honest, but we have legitimate reasons for limiting your access.	Question sincerity, find a good inspector.
Inspection	No admitance	No inspection os permitted.	Reduction of expectations / can be used to cause mystique.	Go elsewhere, require alternatives to inspections.
Authority	Limited authority	The person at the table is not authorized to make the final deal.	It allows negotiation toward the best we can get from you, followed by having to get more from you.	If authority is know ahead of time, provide a non-authoritative negotiator on your side. If this is revealed after negotiations are underway, treat as a possible deception.
Authority	Approval	The person at the table can negotiate, but the deal requires approval.	Lowers expectations of finality, creates potential for refusal to approve, allows negotiator to 'blame' on someone else, allows negotiator to act like they are on your side.	Seek approval at every step, negotiate in good faith to a final agreement and refuse to take less, indicate that you too need approval and get their approval first.
Authority	Escalation approval	Deliberate creation of additional approvals.	Lowers expectations, an escalation of the items in "Approval".	As in "Approval".
Authority	Missing man	Deliberate absence of person with final authority.	As in "Approval"	As in "Approval" or indicate that you will be willing to reschedule for when the final authority is available.
Authority	Arbitration	Third party decision - neutral or biased.	Create at least the illusion of impartiality and fairness, lays blame on others.	Refuse to permit it, accept a well known mechanism, accept only really trusted third parties, back out.
Association	Alliances	Strong partners	Strengthen bargaining power, strong desire for mutual benevolence.	Foster this.
Association	Associates	Friends	Slight strengthening of bargaining power. desire for mutual benevolence.	Foster and improve this, ask for references.
Association	Disassociates	Mutual non-friends	The enemy of my enemy is my friend.	Use caution - it is not always true.
Association	United Nations	Broad-based alliance of industry members.	Strength in numbers.	Try to use it to improve ties, gain reference information.
Association	Bribery	Payoff and collusion	Someone pays someone for an advantage.	Report to law enforcement, report to management, refuse to deal with them, take their money (legally only - give them a receipt and fair market value) and don't weaken your position.
Amount	Fair and reasonable	Everyone wants to believe they are fair and reasonable.	Appeal to morality and sense of fairness.	Get select examples of competitors and raise price to meet theirs, provide explanations for why yours is fair and reasonable at a higher price.
Amount	Bulwarism	Take it or leave it.	Expectations are forced toward win or lose - no shades of gray.	Leave it.
Amount	Nibbling	Take small concessions one after another - after other issues are settled.	Many seemingly small items come out to a large difference.	Nibble back. For every nibble, extract a price.
Amount	Budget bogey	My budget is only so much.	Puts artificial limits on price.	Offer lower-quality alternatives that meet the budget, help them increase the budget, spread over multiple budget items or cycles.
Amount	Blackmail	Since you have no choice, they can ask whatever they want - up to a limit.	Investment in this line leaves you with little choice.	Change directions, nibble for other concessions, change other terms, walk away.
Amount	Escalation	After agreement, take your part and raise demands.	Lowers expectations and feelings of self-worth	Return fire - don't let them get away with it - Offer accepted is a legal contract - etc.
Amount	Intersection	Tie together otherwise seperate negotiations.	Creates complexity and opportunity for tying easy things to hard ones.	Refuse to tie, tie still other items, deal with the increased complexity, etc.
Amount	Non-negotiable	Select items can not be altered.	Lowers expectations with respect to those items and creates automatic wins for one side.	Don't buy into it, create your own non-negotiables, negotiate harder for other items, walk away.
Amount	Chinese auction	Multiple opponents are played off against each other.	Creates competition between competitors.	Ignore the others and negotiate for yourself, walk away, explain that after they have their best offer elsewhere, if they want to deal with you, you will be available to discuss it, trade price for other terms.
Brotherhood	Equal brothers	Based on equal status.	Expectation of tit for tat.	Fulfill expectation with appropriate caution.
Brotherhood	Big Brother	Benevolence based on higher status.	Since I am so much bigger I will help you.	Thanks, I could use the help.
Brotherhood	Little brother	Charity desired based on lower status.	I am small and you are big, please be nice.	Recognize that they are potentially exploiting your desire to be good.
Brotherhood	Long-lost brothers	Search for relationship and status.	Trying to find common ground.	Provide it.
Brotherhood	Brinkmanship	Intersecting destiny based on high joint risk.	Threat-based and potentially very dangerous.	Decide oif it is worth it and if so expect serious consequences and prepare for them.
Detour	Decoy	Attract or snare	Seemingly excellent offer is used to get you to invest time and effort which you are then motivated to get value for.	Recognize and walk away, negotiate harder to get back full value, set parameters and expectations appropriately so that you are not snared.
Detour	Denial	Negation or retraction of statement.	Create false impressions, generate concessions to indicate real parameters, lower expectations, increase anger and frustration, create delays.	On the first time, indicate displeasure, and take back all of the previous discussions, create pressure on their side to stop it.
Detour	Withdrawl	Walk away from negotiations.	Lowers expectations, may generate wild concessions just to get you back to the table.	Don't give in, create social pressures to bring them back, seek out alternative deals.
Detour	Good and bad guys	Good cop bad cop.	You confide in the friendly one, who looks good in comparrison to the unfriendly one.	Recognize the tactic and don't be offended or fooled by it.
Detour	False statistics an errors	Creating deceptive statistics	The statistics have the appearance of authority.	Question, understand, and verify this sort of information.
Detour	Scambled eggs	Creating dilliberate confusion on issues or figures	Confusion is used to cause the negotiator to make mistakes and get in over their head.	Know when you don't know enough and ask for help, bring in experts, explain that it is getting too complex and that if it isn't simplified, you will have to seek alternatives.
Detour	Low balling	Initial low price with high add-ons (close to bait and switch)	Create expectation of low price and momentum to buy, followed by seemingly small adjustments that add up.	Try to get the add-ons for free, nibble at the add-ons, get the 'whole' price and then compare it to alternatives.
Detour	Scoundrel	Larceny by never-ending negotiations	Wastes time and effort while consuming your resources.	Detect and walk away.

Karrass also provides a list of negotiating techniques including: (1) agendas, (2) questions, (3) statements, (4) concessions, (5) commitments, (6) moves, (7) threats, (8) promises, (9) recess, (10) delays, (11) deadlock, (12) focal points, (13) standards, (14) secrecy measures, (15) nonverbal communicaitons, (16) media choices, (17) listening, (18) caucus, (19) formal and informal memorandum, (20) informal discussions, (21) trial ballons and leaks, (22) hostility releivers, (23) temporary intermediaries, (24) location of negotiation, and (25) technique of time. [33]